BOOK REVIEW
MUHAMMADIYAH:
THE POLITICAL BEHAVIOR OF A MUSLIM MODERNIST ORAGNIZATION UNDER DUTCH COLONIALISM.
Writer: Alfian
This book originates from a dissertation of Alfian (student of doctoral program), which he submitted to the university of Wisconsin, Madison, USA, as partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Ph.D degree in political science, entitled: Islamic modernism in Indonesian politics, the Muhammadiyah movement during the Dutch Colonial period 91912-1942). An then, the writer adopted the dissertation and published in a book entitled: Muhammadiyah: The political Behavior of a Muslim modernist organization under Dutch Colonialism. This book was published by Gajah Mada University Press 1989. This book consist of seven chapters + bibliography and Glossary.
In the first chapter, the writer tried to explain the reason in conducting this research.
1. This thesis deems it necessary to find out what kinds of roles seemed to have been played by Muhammadiyah during the period of this study;
2. This study was intended to assess and analyze them carefully, that is, to figure out how Muhammadiyah carried out these roles at that particular time and place;
3. With this assessment and analysis it hoped that this thesis will be able to offer a better understanding and explanation of the subject matter.
The writer highlighted the role of Muhammadiyah into three interrelated roles based on his study, they are: 1) Muhammadiyah as a religious reformist, 2) Muhammadiyah as agent and social change, and 3) Muhammadiyah as a political force. As religious reformist, Muhammadiyah aimed at purifying the Islamic faith by removing superstitious practices and traditional admixtures. As agent and social change, Muhammadiyah aimed at modernizing the Indonesian Muslim community in order to lift it up from its backwardness to a place of respectability in the modern world. And Muhammadiyah as a political force could be analyzed from: 1) the philosophical view of Islam as it seemed to have been adopted by Muhammadiyah, and 2) the development of Muhammadiyah as major interest group in Indonesian politics.
In the 2nd chapter will show an overview of the position of Islam in Indonesian politics during the last forty years of Dutch colonial rule. In chapter 3 will discuss the birth and growth of Islamic modernism in Indonesia in which certain attempts will be made to clarify the essence of its ideas and its eventual rise. The heart of this study would be in chapter IV, V and VI where Muhammadiyah will be closely examined and analyzed. Finally, an effort will be made to recapitulate the findings of the study in a concluding chapter (chapter VII).
ISLAM IN INDONESIAN POLITICS (1900 – 1942)
In this part the writer tried to explore the existence of Islam in Indonesian politics. The birth of Muhammadiyah movement in 1912 was to preceded abd accompanied by a number important events which were to condition the role of Islam , and for that matter of Muhammadiyah itself, in Indonesian politics during the last for decades of Dutch colonial rule.
From 1912 up to the closing year of Dutch colonial rule in 1942, Indopnesian politics was to be characterized by an intensified struggle between nationalism and colonialism, which was to cause the progressive abandonment of the ethical policy. Replacing the reform characteristics of the ethical policy, the Dutch were to implement a policy “Rust and Orde” (Tranquility and Order), a policy which was to closely watch every activity and movement of the indigenous people. Yet, the seed of nationalism, as the most important but also unwanted result of colonialism itself, was never destroyed.
In such a political situation Islam was yet to play an important role. Interestingly enough, the first truly Indonesian political mass movement, which was to show the seriousness of Indonesian nationalism for the first time, was that of an Islam based movement of Syarikat Islam (Islam League). Since the early 1920’s, however, SI was gradually declining, while, subsequently the non Islam based parties began to dominate the course of the Indonesian nationalist movement. At the same time, the Indonesian Muslim community was also experiencing an internal crisis which developed into a situation characterized by serious friction within itself. Divided as it was though, the Muslim community remained faithful to Indonesian nationalist by maintaining the position as its inner part.
In the 18th century, Indonesian Islam was to receive fresh impetus from increasing contact with the Islamic centers in the Middle East. Every year thousands of Indonesian Muslims were to embark on the Mecca pilgrimage and return home as hadjis. Some of the stayed and studied there, as mukimins, for extended periods of time and when they returned home as bearers of orthodox teachings they were gradually displacing the mysticism and syncretism prevalent in Indonesian Islam at that time.
THE ORIGINS AND THE GROWTH OF INDONESIAN ISLAMIC MODERNISM
In this part, the writer tried to explain and consider the origins, the birth and the development of Islamic modernism in Indonesia, as a factor which has been neglected by Snouck Hurgronje (hereafter: SH), and which consequently was partly responsible for the failure of his Islamic policy. If one tries to observe very closely, Islam in Indonesia had always been in continuous process of change from the day it was first brought there centuries ago. The birth and the development of Islam was indeed further continuation of this process of change. Nevertheless, it had its own particular characteristics which differentiated it from the earlier processes of change.
The birth and eventual rise of Islamic modernism had become one of the major phenomena in Indonesian politics. It had partly contributed to the apparent failure of the Dutch Islamic policy, a policy which was designed to curb the socio-cultural influence of Islam in Indonesian society. As such, it appeared to have questioned the validity of the theory of its architect, Snouck Hurgronje. Our understanding of this point at the outset might help us to ease our way in considering the primary concern of this chapter, that is closely examine the origins and growth of Indonesian Islamic modernism.
The importance of modernism to the Indonesian Muslim community as a whole was that it was to expound and insist that the true meaning of Islam could not be limited to ubudiyah matter only, but it also covered the earthly matters-social, economic and political aspect. Not only that, all these heavenly and worldly matters were also interrelated and inseparable. Therefore, Islam was more than a religion, as it commonly defined, it was also a way of life and perfect way of life.
The significance success of Islamic modernism, or if you wish Islamic renaissance, in Indonesia was no nullify Snouck Hurgronje’s conception of Islam which he had used as the basis of his Islamic policy. Interestingly enough, the birth and the growth of this Islamic modernism was partly due to one of the ubudiyah matters, pilgrimage to Mecca, which was given the complete freedom by SH himself.
The birth and development of Islamic modernism in Indonesia was a direct reaction against what the writer has just discussed as the decadence of Islam as religion and the backwardness of its followers. As such, they were to serve as its first two major causes: while the surge of western intellectual, cultural and political invasion and the penetration of the ideas of Islamic modernism from abroad, especially those which came from Egypt, were to become its third and fourth factor.
MUHAMMADIYAH: THE FORMATIVE YEARS (1912-1923)
This part and the next part of this book, the writer attempted to assess and analyze the role of Muhammadiyah in the process of socio-political change and development in Indonesia from the date of its birth 1912 – 1942.
The formative year of Muhammadiyah could best be described its “slow but sure” way in spreading its ideas, in achieving some of its goals, and in establishing the foundation for its future progress. This was not only due to the novelty of ideas and goals, but also because the society, the Javanese society of Jogja, in which it was the first born and within it was allowed to operate by the Dutch colonial government for the large part of formative period, was culturally, socially, politically and old and well established one. In a addition to that, a Moslem organization it was to be overshadowed by the striking progress of SI, while as a socio-educational movement it was forced to complete with Budi Utomo which has already had a historical advantage in being the first modern association of the indigenous population. Furthermore, although the surge of western civilization, both secular and Christian, was making a significant impact, it was still at its early stage –thus, too early for the Muslims to be able to realize its ultimate dangers. Yet, the perseverance of Kiai Ahmad Dahlan and a few of his closest friends was to be paid off handsomely by their eventual success in building the infrastructure of the movement, thereby enabling his successors to continue his job with remarkable progress afterwards.
MUHAMADIJAH: THE YEARS OF TRIAL AND RAPID DEVELOPMENT
In this period (1924-1933) was probably the most exciting stage in the life of Muhammadiyah movement during the Dutch colonial rule. It was the first place characterized by the rapid rise of the movement all over the Indonesian archipelago, making it the largest and the most widely spread Muslim modernist movement in the colony. Secondly, this rapid rise, interestingly, enough, was to be accompanied by a variety of problems faced by the movement, making this period the years of trial for the highly spirited Muhammadiyah.
In this part, the writer tried to explore the development of Muhammadiyah time to time in every island and province in Indonesia. He started from the development of Muhammadiyah in Java. The development of Muhammadiyah in Java was by and large a fairly significant achievement it itself, in spite of the fact it had no through such an uneasy road to reach it. Through these years of trial and rapid growth Muhammadiyah was to come out a well seasoned and mature movement at the end.
In many ways this period was markedly different for Muhammadiyah in Java in comparison to the formative years under Dahlan. The seemingly extreme tolerance shown by the movement toward the Christians was to be drastically changed as Muhammadiyah was to become more sensitive about other beliefs and political ideologies which it considered harmful or inimical to Islam and to its own growth. It was to become firmly anti-communist as it was to become furious when anyone tried to criticize, discredit or allegedly slander the religion.
In role as agent of social change was also increased as could be seen from the expansion of its school and other social activities were still far behind those of the Christian Mission and undoubtedly behind those of the government itself. Nevertheless, the ability of Muhammadiyah to expand its educational and social activities in accordance with and parallel to its organizational growth was to further affirm its grip on Javanese society. As a result, this and its tabligh and other activities its publication were to be largely responsible in shaping its role as an importance force in the society.
In term of the development of Muhammadiyah in Java and Madura, the writer mentioned the number of Muhammadiyah’s branches increasing rapidly. In 1923, there was 15 places (Java and Madura) increased become 51 branches and groups in 1926, and became 153 brances and group in 1932. According to the source, this list was incomplete since it claimed that Muhammadiyahhad a total 437 branches and groups in that year. By June 1933 it had again increased its branches and groups to 557. from the 283 branches and group listed in 1932, Muhammadiyah claimed to have a total membership of 44, 879, the majority from Java.
CONCLUSION
The significance of Muhammadiyah in Indonesian politics
There is little doubt that Muhammadiyah had succeeded in making itself one of the landmarks in the political history of Indonesia. Its actual significance appeared to have been that of being the major force behind the ideas of Islamic modernism, the ideas which seemed to have partly contributed to the preservation of Islam as one of the important elements in Indonesian politics. Such a significance could be partly explained by understanding the problems faced by Indonesian Islam and its followers.
It was under such conditions that Islam entered modern Indonesian politics of the twentieth century, the situational logic of which was unfavorable to the faith. Firstly, Islam faced the inherent political threat from the Dutch largely due to the their negative attitude toward it. Secondly, there was the surge of new and modern political ideologist and even religious. The enactment of the ethical policy at the values and religions-secularism and Christianity- into the society, largely through the acceleration of western education and increasing missionary works. Although the surge of western civilization had eventually brought the ironic bitter fruit of nationalism to the ethical policy, at least, in part, it had succeeded to further alienate the members of the traditional establishment, from the nominal religion as they strongly professed a secular view of religious matter.
Thirdly, while facing these and other external threats Islam in Indonesia was also experiencing a continuous internal problem of diversity which had divided the Indonesian Muslims into various factions a could be seen in various organization and movement blooming all over the colony.
The varying behavior of Muhammadiyah in Indonesian Politics
In this part of conclusion, the writer tried to examine and evaluate the behavior of Muhammadiyah in achieving a place of importance in Indonesian politics. It was found that the major characteristics of its behavior was its apparent diversity. Speaking in term of coclony-wide behavior we found it changing from time to time as the general situational logic of Indonesian politics and Muhammadiyah’s significance on it also changed.
Speaking colony-wide, the behavior of Muhammadiyah could be differentiated into at least three variations:
1. There was its apparent attitude of anti-establishment –Dutch and native alike- or, if you wish, anti coclonialism. This behavior was largely caused by the inherent negative attitude of the colonial establishment toward Islam. Consequently, from the beginning Muhammadiyah appeared to have sided with modern Indonesian nationalism.
2. There was within the Indonesian nationalist movement. Here it was characterized by its strong sensitivity as it was to take Islam as its political belief. Doe to this, Muhammadiyah couldn’t take for granted any criticism, or insult on the faith. Consequently, this had apparently brought Muhammadiyah to oppose other ideologies and religious such as communism, Western secular nationalism, traditional revivalism, and Christianity, which Muhammadiyah often found to have discredited Islam as a viable political ideology.
3. The rise of Muhammadiyah to take an active and independent course of action within the Indonesian Muslim community. Its eventual split with Syarekat Islam (SI) was largely due to this apparent rise of the sense of independence as the movement began to spread widely. One of the reason for the split was Muhammadiyah’s refusal to follow SI’s radical policy of non-cooperation with the Dutch. Another one was the seeming fact that many Muhammadiyah leaders who had played an active role in SI often felt that they were much superior on religious matters than their non-Muhammadiyah counterpart.
Observing the behavior of Muhamadiyah from one region to another, it was found that its diversity as even more apparent. It appeared, for instance, that Muhammadiyah Minangkabau was more politically inclined and ideologically militant than Muhammadiyah Java. Muhammadiyah Minangkabau and its Hadji rasul had directly and openly confronted the colonial regime by staging an all Minagkabau Ulama conference in 1928for the sole purpose of rejecting the unpopular Goeroe Ordonantie. The confrontation, which was undoubtedly political, was successful as the Dutch were forced to suspend the implementation of the Ordonnantie in Minagkabau.
COMMENTS
The content of this book is very good for those who want to know lot about the process of Muhammadiyah’s birth, the development of Muhammdiyah, and some figures who largely contribute to the establishment of Muhammadiyah. The writer of this book (Alfian) divided the explanation of this book into some parts (chapters). Each chapter contains specific issues. So, the reader would be directed to the specific issues that happened in the past, and would be easier to find what the reader wants to know from the book. The role of Muhammadiyah as Islamic organization and its contribution against colonialism is the central issues in this book. By reading this book, the reader will be brought the era that happened along time ago. The era in which our country struggled to be independent country against some colonialisms. The role of some mass organization including Muhammadiyah in the war against colonialism was very important part to realize the independence of Indonesia. Beside the contribution of Muhammadiyah in the struggle era, some figures and also founding fathers of Muhammadiyah are explained in details in this book.
This scientific is scientific book (dissertation of writer), since it was written through long process of research by a Doctoral student (Ph.D) who studied in USA. Mr. Alfian explained and showed us the facts, how importance of Muhammadiyah’s role in term of defenses this country from the colonialism. He wrote in details with the real facts that he met during the process of research.
Hopefully, this book can be translated into Indonesia, in order to be readable and understandable by entire people in Indonesia. It is important since most Indonesian people do not understand yet the English orally or written. By translating into Indonesia, Indonesian people are expected read this book and they can also find the struggling spirit of Indonesian heroes against colonialism.
Reviewer: Jasmansyah
