SAHABAT SEJATI....., BIKIN PRESTASI

SAHABAT SEJATI.....,
BIKIN BERPRESTASI.......




Hidup sendirian pasti nggak enak. Punya masalah nggak ada tempat curhat, ada beban dipukul sendiri, punya berita gembira nggak bisa bagi-bagi. Iih..bete banget! Coba kalau ada sahabat, kesulitan nggak akan terlalu menyusahkan, kebahagiaan akan bertambah ketika ada yang ikut bahagia. Yuk, tengok kiri kanan, pasti ada seseorang yang bisa kita gaet untuk jadi sahabat!

Bersahabat, kudu!
Sudah takdirnya manusia Allah ciptakan sebagai makhluk sosial. Kita tidak mungkin hidup sendiri. Sahabat adalah contoh penting dalam rangka kebutuhan kita terhadap manusia lain. Kata ‘sahabat’ biasanya dikaitkan dengan rasa senasib sepenanggungan, keindahan, kebersamaan, dan saling mengisi. Hubungan seperti ini tentu saja tidak semudah membina hubungan sebatas pertemanan. Teman tentu saja bisa kita jumpai di manapun, tapi tidak dengan sahabat, karena sahabat tidak hanya ada ketika senang, tapi juga selalu siap ketika kita berada dalam kesulitan.
Kedudukan sahabat dalam Islam sangat penting. Rasulullah SAW saja semasa hidupnya hampir tidak pernah sendiri tanpa sahabat-sahabatnya. Sahabat beliau tidak satu, tapi semua asshabiqunal awwalun (generasi pertama yang masuk Islam) adalah sahabat beliau. Bisa kita bayangkan betapa Rasulullah SAW sangat piawai membina hubungan pertemanan sehingga bisa mencapai derajat persahabatan, yang tentunya tahap kasih sayang dan kecintaannya sering melebihi cinta pada diri sendiri. Hebatnya lagi, kondisi ini bukan hanya beliau sendiri yang merasakan, tapi seluruh sahabatnya juga merasakan kondisi persahabatan yang luar biasa menggetarkan dengan sahabat yang lainnya. Tengok saja Abu Darda yang kaya rela memberi salah seorang istri dan setengah hartanya untuk Abdurrahman bin Auf, atau Ali bin Abi Thalib yang rela dianiaya kaum kafir Quraisy ketika menggantikan Rasulullah hijrah ke Madinah bersama Abu Bakar.
Islam merangkum keindahan persahabatan dalam konsep ukhuwah Islamiyah, yang mengedepankan sikap tafahum (saling memahami), ta’awun (saling tolong menolong), dan takaful (saling bela). Inilah basis penting yang Rasulullah SAW bangun sehingga kaum muslimin mampu menghancurkan kaum kafir di semenanjung Arabia sampai negara adidaya masa itu yaitu Persia dan Romawi.

Sesama Jenis OK, Lawan Jenis Nggak OK?
Untuk bisa mencapai tahap persahabatan membutuhkan waktu dan proses. Sikap tafahum, ta’awun dan takaful yang paling urgen dalam persahabatan bisa muncul setelah beberapa lama kita ta’aruf (saling kenal) dengan calon sahabat kita.
Kebutuhan akan persahabatan biasanya lebih dominan ada pada perempuan. Perempuan kental sekali dengan gelombang emosionalnya, sehingga ia cenderung butuh tempat untuk berbagi perasaan dan kasih sayang. Makanya nggak aneh kalau mereka mampu mengungkapkan masalah yang paling pribadi sama seseorang yang banyak kesamaan dengannya. Beda sama kaum pria, persahabatan tidak terlalu mengedepankan perasaan, sehingga kalau di antara mereka ada perbedaan prinsip atau pendapat nggak bikin persahabatan mereka putus. Asal ada kesamaan minat dan aktivitas, persahabatan mereka bisa lancar-lancar aja. Nah, jika maksain terjadinya persahabatan antara laki-laki dan perempuan biasanya nggak bakal bertahan lama. Timbulnya perasaan lain seperti cinta, cemburu dan takut kehilangan seringkali merusak persahabatan.

Berani Menerima Perubahan
Kalau kita mengartikan sebuah persahabatan adalah keakraban yang nggak akan berubah oleh kondisi apapun, tentu saja salah banget. Hidup ini penuh dengan kejutan dan perubahan. Terjadinya perubahan status, tempat, pendidikan, pekerjaan dan aktivitas kalau tidak diiringi dengan sikap lapang dada bisa menggoyahkan persahabatan.
Seorang teman Nida pernah mengungkapkan kekecewaannya ketika ia merasa ‘ditinggal’ oleh sahabatnya yang belum lama menikah. Teman Nida yang lain merasa semakin jauh dengan sahabatnya ketika sang sahabat melanjutkan pendidikan ke bangku kuliah, sedang ia memilih bekerja di sebuah pabrik elektronik.
Sebagai sahabat yang baik, tentu saja perubahan ke arah perbaikan yang dialami oleh sahabat kita nggak boleh bikin kita sakit hati dan kecewa. Setiap perubahan baru yang dialami seseorang pasti membutuhkan waktu untuk diadaptasi, dan itu bisa terjadi pada kita. Lapang dada aja deh untuk beberapa waktu. Suatu saat sahabat yang kayaknya mulai jauh dan ninggalin kita pasti akan rindu dan kembali pada kita.
Yang paling penting harus kita ingat adalah perintah Allah untuk senantiasa bersabar dengan orang-orang yang senantiasa mengingat Allah, dan jangan berpaling dari mereka hanya karena ingin mendapatkan keuntungan dunia (QS. Al Kahfi:28).

Sudahkah jadi Sahabat Sejati?
Dalam ayat di atas Allah juga mengingatkan kita untuk tidak menjadikan sahabat orang-orang yang hatinya lalai, suka menuruti hawa nafsu dan kalakuannya sering melampaui batas. Tahu sendirikan, setiap perilaku buruk itu pasti menular, begitu juga kebaikan. Seperti kata Rasulullah SAW "Seseorang itu menurut agama (aturan) temannya, maka telitilah lebih dulu orang yang akan menjadi temanmu”
Sahabat sejati bukanlah seseorang yang manis di mulut dan membujuk pada hal-hal negatif. Orang bijak mengatakan sahabat sejati adalah teman yang mendengar dan mengerti ketika kita mengungkapkan perasaan yang paling dalam. Ia memberikan dukungan ketika kita sedang berjuang. Ia tidak melihat dari fisik dan kekayaan kita. Ia mengoreksi kita dengan lembut dan sayang ketika kita berbuat salah, dan ia memaafkan ketika kita gagal. Seorang teman sejati mendorong dan memacu potensi kita untuk mengembangkan pribadi secara maksimum. Dan yang paling menakjubkan, ia merayakan keberhasilan kita seolah-olah itu keberhasilannya sendiri. Kalau belum punya sahabat seperti ini, berdoalah agar Allah menganugrahkannya untuk kita
Cobalah objektif terhadap diri sendiri, apakah kita sudah termasuk sahabat sejati bagi sahabat kita? Kalau belum masih ada kesempatan untuk memurnikan persahabatanmu. Lalu sudahkah sahabatmu menjadi sahabat sejati bagimu? Kalau sudah bersyukurlah karena itu anugrah Allah yang tak terhingga. Tapi kalau tidak, kamu bisa mendorongnya untuk menjadi sahabat terbaik. Trus, kalau ia masih sering mencoba menularkan sifat buruknya padamu, bersikaplah tegas untuk tidak menjadikannya sahabat terdekat. Karena seorang sahabat tidak menambah keburukan pada sahabatnya, tapi kebaikan semata.



Sahabat Dunia Akhirat
Ketika bersahabat, tentu kita ingin agar persahabatan itu langgeng sampai akhir hayat. Tapi sekarang jarang terjadi suatu persahabatan bisa bertahan sampai kakek nenek, yang banyak tentu saja pada masa Rasulullah SAW dan para sahabatnya.
Persahabatan Rasulullah SAW dan para sahabatnya bagus banget untuk kita contoh. Persahabatan mereka bukan hanya persahabatan di dunia, tapi juga berorientasi akhirat. Dalam kebaikan yang mereka persembahkan untuk sahabat tercinta, mereka ingin hanya Allah lah yang tahu perbutan baik mereka, bukan sahabatnya. Sehingga ketika sang sahabat tidak mengingat kebaikan tersebut, mereka bahagia bahwa Allah sudah mencatatnya. “Sebenarnya bukan sahabatmu, kecuali yang bersahabat kepadamu, setelah ia mengetahui benar-benar kejelekanmu, dan tiada yang demikian kecuali Tuhanmu Yang Maha Mengetahui. Sebaik-baik sahabatmu ialah yang selalu memperhatikan kepentinganmu, bukan karena suatu kepentingan yang diharap daripadamu untuk dirinya” (Al Hikam, 146).
Sikap ini semakin menambah cinta antara mereka walaupun sudah terpisah jauh, sehingga Rasulullah SAW mengatakan bahwa kelak di akhirat mereka akan dikumpulkan bersama orang-orang yang dicintainya. “Seseorang akan berkumpul dengan siapa yang dicintainya (walaupun nanti di akhirat)” (HR. Bukhari Muslim).
Maka mencintailah karena Allah, dan cintailah orang-orang yang mencintai Allah dan RasulNya, supaya kita bisa berkumpul dengan mereka di Syurga. Bukan mencintai orang-orang yang zhalim, sehingga berkumpulnya malah di neraka. Na’udzubillah.

PUISI BAHASA INGGRIS

ONE DAY LATER

One day later
My body will die
But in the distich of this poem
I wouldn’t acquiesce you alone

One day later
My voice wouldn’t be heard again
Yet among rows of this poem
I will steadfast investigate you

One day later
My vision will be unrecognized again
Yet, in the letter cracks of this poem
I’ll look for you forever




THE RAIN IN JUNE


Nobody resolute
Rather than the rain in June
Its yearning-drizzle is hidden
To the tree which has bloom

Nobody wise
Rather than the rain in June
His footprints is erased
Which hesitant in the way

Nobody skillful
Rather than the rain in June
The unspoken thing is ignored
Absorbed by the root of the flower tree


By : Sapardi Djoko Darmono

NDIVIDUAL LEARNER DIFFERENCES AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION part 2

INDIVIDUAL LEARNER DIFFERENCES AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Disarikan dari buku UNDERSTANDING SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION karya R. ELLIS (Pp. 99 –
126)
oleh : jasmansyah



Second Language (L2) learners vary on a number of dimensions to do with personality, motivation, learning style, aptitude and age.
 Aspect of SLA influenced by individual learner factors
Two basics possibilities regarding which aspect of SLA are affected by individual learners, they are:
1). The differences in age, learning style, aptitude, motivation, and personality result.
2). The factors influence only rate and ultimate success in SLA.
 Identification and Classification of learner factors
The identification and classification of the different individual factors has proved to be problematic. The main difficulty is that it is not possible to observe directly qualities, such as aptitude, motivation, or anxiety. Hawkey (1982) lists some of these: affective, cognitive and ability factors (Chastain 1975) and attitudinal / motivational characteristics (Gardner et al. 1975).
 Personal factors
Personal factors such as those identified by Schumann and Schumann are difficult to observe by a third person. This methodological problem has been solved in two ways. First, through the use of diaries studies, Second, through the use of questionnaires and interviews with individual learners. Personal factors are by definition heterogeneous:
1) Group Dynamic
Group Dynamics (henceforth GD) seem to be important in the classroom of SLA. Bailey (1983) records in some details the anxiety and competitiveness experienced by a number of diarists. Some classroom learners make overt comparisons of themselves with other learners. In other kind of comparisons, learners match how they think they are progressing against their expectations. McDonough (1978) also pinpoints GD as an important set of personal variables. He notes, however, that although rivalries can promote confusion, they can also serve a stimulus for learning.

2) Attitudes to the Teacher and Course Materials
Students will inevitably have very different views about the kind of teacher they think is best for them. Some prefer a teacher who creates for them to pursue their own learning path. Others prefer a teacher who structures the learning tasks much more tightly. Pickett (1978) study of successful language learning reveals greater diversity in attitudes towards the role of the teacher. Some learners wanted the teacher to act as ‘informant’, but others praised teachers who were logical, clear, and systematic. The main generalization to emerge from Pickett’s study is that learner needs to feel sympathy for their teacher, and also want him or her to be predictable.
Learners also vary in their attitudes to teaching materials, In general. Adult learners dislike having a course book imposed upon them in a rigid way. They prefer a variety of materials and the opportunity to use them in ways they choose for themselves.
3) Individual Learning Techniques
There is tremendous variety in the techniques employed by different learners. They will be dealt with in two groups: those involved in studying the L2, and those involved in obtaining L2 input. Naiman (1978) and Pickett (1978) identify numerous study techniques:
1. Preparing and memorizing vocabulary lists
Individual learners appear to have highly idiosyncratic ways of copying with this. For instance, one of Picket’s subjects kept a notebook in which he recorded first the English word, then the foreign word in phonetic transcription, and finally the orthographic version of the foreign word. He reported having three vocabulary lists, which he kept going at the same time: one was arranged chronologically, the second alphabetically, and the third either grammatically or situationally.
2. Learning words in context
Some learners made no attempt to keep lists. They relied on picking out key vocabulary items from the contexts in which they were used.
3. Practicing vocabulary
Various techniques fall under this heading: deliberately putting words into different structures in order to drill one, reading to reinforce vocabulary, playing games such as trying to think of words wit the same ending, and repeating words to oneself.
 General factors
 Age
Age is the variable that has been most frequently considered in discussions of individual differences in SLA. The main aim in this section is to highlight the key elements in this complex issue by first examining the effects of age and then looking at various explanations of these effects.
 The effects of age
It is necessary to separate the effects of age and the route of SLA from the effects of age on the rate or success of SLA. Most of studies that have investigated the role of age have been concerned with the latter. That is, they have examined the extent of the correlation between measures of age and length of learning period and measure of proficiency achieved. The available evidence suggests that age does not alter the route of acquisition. Rate and success of SLA appear to be strongly influenced by the age of the learner. Where rate is concerned, there is evidence to suggests that older learners are better.
 Explaining the effect of age
The critical period hypothesis states that there is a period when language acquisition takes place naturally and effortlessly. Penfield and Roberts (1959) argued that the optimum age for language acquisition falls within the first ten years of life. During this period the brain retains plasticity, but with the onset of puberty this plasticity begins to disappear.
Some evidence to support the critical period hypothesis was supplied by Lenneberg (1967). Lennerberg found that injuries to the right hemisphere caused more language problems in children than in adults. He also found that in cases of children who underwent surgery7 of the left hemisphere, no speech disorder s resulted, whereas with adults almost total language loss occurred. Lennerberg then assumed that language acquisition was easier for children.
 Cognitive explanations
One obvious difference between young child and the adolescent or adult is the ability of the latter to comprehend language as a formal system. Older learner can learn about language by consciously studying linguistics rules. The also can apply these rules when they use the language. In contrast, younger children, while not totally lacking in meta-awareness, are not so prone to respond to language as form. As Halliday (1973) pointed out that the young child responds not so much what language is a to what it does. It is possible that age differences in SLA can be explained in terms of the different orientation to language of children and older learners.
 Affective explanation
Brown (1980b) proposes that SLA is related to stages of acculturation (i.e. the ability of the learner to relate and respond easily to the foreign language culture). Brown identifies 4 stages of acculturation: (1) initial excitement and euphoria; (2) culture shock, leading to the feelings of estrangement and hostility towards the target culture; (3) culture stress, involving a gradual and vacillating recovery; and (4) assimilation or adaptation. Young children are seen as socio-culturally resilient, because they are less culture-bound that adults.
Neufeld (1978) offers a more convincing account of how effective factors are related to age differences in SLA. He distinguishes ‘primary’ and ‘secondary’ levels of language. Primarily levels include a reasonably large functional vocabulary, and baic mastery of pronunciation and grammatical rules. Secondary levels include the ability to acquire primarily level. However, children are more likely to achieve secondary levels than adults because they are much more strongly motivated by the need to be accepted by their peer groups. Whereas, the adult is happy to maintain a foreign accent.
 Intelligence and aptitude
Learning a L2 in a classroom involves two sets of intellectual abilities. It involves what might be called ‘a general academic or reasoning ability’, it often referred to as intelligence. The other kind of ability consists of specific cognitive qualities needed for SLA, often referred to as aptitude.
 Intelligence
It underlies our ability to master and use a whole range of academic skills. McDonough (1981) emphasizes it refers to capacity rather than contents of the mind. That is supposedly measured by intelligences tests. Cummins (1979) distinguishes two kinds of language ability:
1. Cognitive / academic language ability (CALP); this is a dimension of language proficiency which is strongly related to overall cognitive and academic skills and can be equated with Oller and Perkin’s ‘g’ factor and general intelligence.
2. Basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS; these are the skill required for oral fluency and also include sociolinguistics aspects of competence. Cummins argues that CALP and BICS are independent and that both sets of abilities are to be found in first and second language acquisition.
 Aptitude
It has been suggested that people differ in the extent to which they possess a natural ability for learning an L2. Caroll and Sapon (1985) identify three major components of aptitude:
1) Phonetic coding ability, which consist of the ability to perceive and memorize new sounds. Or the ability to identify the sounds of a foreign language so that they can be remembered later. Example: To identify the sound which ‘th’ stands for;
2) Grammatical sensitivity, which is the individual’s ability to demonstrate awareness of the syntactical patterning of sentence of language. Example: the subject and object of a sentence;
3) Inductive ability, which consists of the ability to notice and identify similarities and differences in both grammatical form and meaning. For example: to recognize that English ‘to’ can denote direction and ‘at’ location;
4) Rote learning ability, the ability to form and remember associations between stimuli. This is believed to be important in vocabulary learning;
Krashen (1972) distinguishes two aspects of SLA; acquisition and learning. Acquisition is the subconscious internalization of L2 knowledge that occurs through using the L2 naturally and spontaneously. Learning is the conscious study of a L2 that results in knowledge about the rules of the knowledge. Krashen argues that aptitude relates only in learning
The effects of aptitude on language learning have been measured in terms of the proficiency level achieved by different classroom learners.
 Cognitive Style
Cognitive style is a term used to refer to the manner in which people perceive, conceptualize, organize, and recall information. Each person is considered to have a more or less consistent mode of cogitative functioning.
 Attitudes and Motivation
Schumann (1978) lists Attitude as a social factor on a par with variables such as ‘size or learning group’, and Motivation as an affective factor alongside ‘culture shock’.
Gardner & Lambert, 1972: defines Motivation in terms of the L2 learner’s overall goal or orientation, and attitude as the persistence shown by the learner in striving for a goal. They argue that there is no reason to expect a relationship between the two; the type of motivation is distinct from the attitudes displayed to different learner tasks. However, Gardner: 1979 suggest that attitudes are related to motivation by serving as supports of the learner’s overall orientation.
Brown, 1981 distinguishes motivation and attitude. He identifies 3 types of motivation:
1. Global motivation, which consist of general orientation to the goal of learning a L2;
2. Situational motivation, which varies according to the situation in which learning takes place;
3. Task motivation, which is the motivation for performing particular learning tasks.
There are also some various kinds of motivation have been identified: they are:
1. Instrumental motivation, learners may make efforts to learn an L2 for some functional reason—to pass examination, to get better job, to get a place at university etc.
2. Integrative motivation, some learners may choose to learn a particular L2 because they are interested in the people and culture represented by the target language group.
3. Resultative motivation, an assumption of the research referred to above is that motivation is the cause of L2 achievement. However, it is also possible that motivation is a result of learning. That is, learners who experience success in learning may become more, or in some context, less motivation to learn. This helps to explain the conflicting research result.
4. Intrinsic motivation, motivation involves the arousal and maintenance of curiosity and can ebb and flow as a result of such factors as learners’ particular interests and the extent to which they feel personality involved to learning activities.
Motivation is clearly a highly complex phenomenon. These four types of motivation should be seen as complementary rather than as distinct and oppositional. Learners can be both integrative and instrumentally motivated at one and the same time. Motivation can result from learning as well as cause it. Furthermore, motivation is dynamic in nature, it is not something that a learner has or does not have but rather something that varies from one moment to the next depending on the learning context or task.
Brown uses the term ‘attitudes’ to refer to the set of believes that the learner holds towards members of the target language group (e.g. whether they are seen as interesting or boring, honest or dishonest, etc) and also toward his own culture.
Stern (1983: 376-7) classifies these attitudes into three types:
1. Attitudes towards the community and people who speak the L2 (i.e. ‘group specific attitudes’);
2. Attitudes towards learning the language concerned;
3. Attitudes towards languages and language learning in general.
These attitudes are influenced by the kind of personality of the learner, for instance whether he is ethnocentric or authoritarian. They may be also influenced by the social milieu in which learning takes place. Different attitudes, for instance, may be found in monolingual and bilingual contexts.
The results of the empirical research based on Gardner and Lambert’s theoretical framework are mixed and difficult to interpret. The following is a summary of the major findings:
1. Motivation and attitudes are important factor, which help to determine the level proficiency achieved by different learners;
2. The effects of motivation/attitudes appear to be separate from the effects of attitude. The most successful learner will be those who have both a talent and a high level of motivation for learning;
3. In certain situations an integrative motivation may be more powerful in facilitating successful L2 learning, but in other situations instrumental motivations may count for more.
4. The level and type of motivation is strongly influenced by the social context in which learning takes place, as has ready been noted.
 The good language learner
There have been a number of attempts to specify the qualities of the ‘good language learner’ based on studies of personal and general learner factor (Rubin 1975; Naiman et. Al. 1978). The good language learner will:
1. be able to respond to the group dynamics of the learning situation;
2. seek out all opportunities to use the target language;
3. make maximum use of the opportunities afforded to practice listening to and responding to speech in the L2;
4. supplement the learning that derives from direct contact with speakers of the L2 with learning derived from the use of study techniques;
5. be an adolescent or adult rather than a young children;
6. posses sufficient analytic skills to perceive, categorize, and store the linguistics feature of the L2;
7. posses a strong reason for learning the L2 and develop a strong task motivation;
8. be prepared to experiment by taking risks, even if this makes the learner appear foolish;
9. be capable of adapting to different learning condition
These characteristics are a mixed bunch. Some apply more to classroom learners than to naturalistic learners.

INDIVIDUAL LEARNER DIFFERENCES AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

INDIVIDUAL LEARNER DIFFERENCES AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Presented by: JASMANSYAH (049478)
sources : UNDERSTANDING SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Writer : R. ELLIS (Pp. 99 – 126)

Introduction
 Aspect of SLA influenced by individual learner factors
 Identification and Classification of learner factors
 Personal factors
This methodological problem has been solved in two ways:
First, through the use of diaries studies,
Second, through the use of questionnaires and interviews with individual learners.

 Group Dynamic
 Attitudes to the Teacher and Course Materials
 Individual Learning Techniques
Naiman (1978) and Pickett (1978) identify numerous study techniques:
1. Preparing and memorizing vocabulary lists
2. Learning words in context
3. Practicing vocabulary

 Intelligence and Aptitude
a. Intelligence : A general academic or reasoning ability
b. Aptitude : Specific cognitive needed for SLA.
Cummins (1979) distinguishes two kinds of language ability:
1. Cognitive / academic language ability (CALP);
2. Basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS);

Caroll and Sapon (1985) identify three major components of aptitude:
1) Phonetic coding ability.
Example: To identify the sound which ‘th’ stands for;
2) Grammatical sensitivity.
Example: the subject and object of a sentence;
3) Inductive ability. For example: to recognize that English ‘to’ can denote direction and ‘at’ location;
4. Rote learning ability.

 Attitudes and Motivation
Schumann, 1978:
a. Attitude : a social factor on a par with variables such as size or learning group;
b. Motivation : an affective factor alongside culture shock.

Gardner & Lambert, 1972:
a. Attitude : persistence shown by the learner in striving for a goal
b. Motivation : the L2 learner’s overall goal orientation

Brown, 1981 distinguishes motivation and attitude. He identifies 3 types of motivation:
1. Global motivation
2. Situational motivation
3. Task motivation

 The ‘good language learners’
The good language learner will:
1. be able to respond to the group dynamics of the learning situation;
2. seek out all opportunities to use the target language;
3. make maximum use of the opportunities afforded to practice listening to and responding to speech in the L2;
4. supplement the learning that derives from direct contact with speakers of the L2 with learning derived from the use of study techniques;
5. be an adolescent or adult rather than a young children;
6. posses sufficient analytic skills to perceive, categorize, and store the linguistics feature of the L2;
7. posses a strong reason for learning the L2 and develop a strong task motivation;
8. be prepared to experiment by taking risks, even if this makes the learner appear foolish;
9. be capable of adapting to different learning condition

the teaching techniques to increase students’ spoken interaction in EFL classroom at SMA Islam As-Syafi’iyah Sukabumi

The teaching techniques to increase students’ spoken interaction in EFL classroom at SMA Islam As-Syafi’iyah Sukabumi.
Writer : Jasmansyah

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

This paper discusses the study of teaching techniques to increase students’ spoken interaction in EFL classroom at SMA Islam As-Syafi’iyah Sukabumi.
1. Background
In this globalization era, English has an important role in the world, in term of communication and interaction. As an International language, most countries in the world use English as medium of communication in entire aspects of life. Meanwhile, In Indonesia English is considered as a foreign language (EFL). It also has been introduced to educational institutions which is learnt from Junior High School up to university as compulsory subject.
The ability to speak English has always become a very important goal for learners of this language both its natural and foreign setting. Although learning English without learning how to communicate in English is possible, today’s frequent transactions by means of the language have made the possession of the ability to speak in it become indispensable. However, more failures than successes have always marked the English teaching world when attempts are made a particularly deal with ability to communicate. Many learners know about the language, but only some of them understand how to use it in daily social use correctly, not necessarily appropriately.
The teaching of English in SMA is intended to provide students with a brief knowledge of understanding any references of English, either in written or spoken. Furthermore, one of the objectives of new curriculum (Competence Based Curriculum / CBC) is to enable them have some skills, especially to communicate using English as a target language. Therefore, English teaching at SMA also should be improved through the availability of facilities such as classroom, language laboratory, and language library. On the other hand, sufficient qualified teachers are also needed to increase the required educational development especially in EFL teaching implementation. By sending them to any EFL upgrading will improve the development of teachers qualification. There are provided and introduced many of up to date teaching techniques that may grow brightly expected teaching especially in speaking such as role play, group discussion, simulation in English activities and so on.
In transferring of language to students are needed appropriate techniques in order to give new atmosphere of class interaction. In other side, by implementing various techniques, avoid students to be bored and could stimulate them in teaching and learning process. To make the students able to communicate in target language, the English teacher should be aware of implementing classroom speaking process. Moreover, Brown states :
1) Techniques should cover the spectrum of learners needs, from language-based focus on accuracy to message-based focus on interaction, meaning and fluency, 2) technique use also encourage the use intrinsically motivating, 3) technique uses should also encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful context, 4) provide appropriate feedback and correction, 5) capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening, 6) give the students opportunities to initiate oral communication, 7) encourage the development of speaking strategies (1994 : 266)

It can be assumed that English teacher are required to be well prepared before performing the lesson through supported activities in order to impress the students’ motivation in achieving the skill on speaking. Thus, communicative language teaching will run more effectively and efficiently.
Based on pre-observation, some students have suggested that speaking should be more priority treated than other skills such as reading, listening and writing. In fact, the process of teaching learning process at SMA Islam As-Syafi’iyah Sukabumi in teaching and learning speaking seem need serious attention and improvement. On the other hand, the proficiency of English teacher at SMA Islam As-Syafi’iyah is still low, because both of the teacher come from different background. Means that the English teachers of SMA Islam As-Syafi’iyah Sukabumi are not from English educational background. It has a big influence in transferring of English for students, because the teachers do not understand how to teach English, in term of techniques which is applied in teaching English as a target language. It automatically hinders of students’ motivation to follow and learn of English well.
Based on the previous phenomenon, I’m interested to study of the teaching techniques to increase students’ spoken interaction in EFL classroom at SMA Islam As-Syafi’iyah Sukabumi.
2. Purpose of the Study
This study was intended to observe the teaching techniques to increase students’ spoken interaction in EFL classroom at SMA Islam As-Syafi’iyah Sukabumi. Moreover, this research was conducted to know students’ perceptions, their learning experiences, their difficulties in learning English, effect of teaching techniques and find out the solution.
3. Formulation of the problem
The problem of the research were formulated as follows:
Is teaching and learning English using techniques more effective and interested than traditional one?
4. Hypothesis
To answer the problem in this study it was hypothesized that teaching and learning English by using techniques more effective and interested than traditional one.
5. Significance of this research
It is expected that the finding in this research will be useful to the teachers in increasing students’ spoken interaction. In additional, the teacher are expected to know the effectiveness of techniques in teaching and learning process in term of students’ spoken interaction in EFL classroom.










CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. Techniques on Teaching English as Foreign Language ( EFL )
1. Techniques
The following discussion highlight some definitions of techniques, its basic characteristics, and classification of techniques along with examples of action subsumed under each type of techniques.
In the advance Learner Dictionary of Current English (Oxford, 1987 : 887) stated that techniques are method of doing something expertly. While Brown (1994 : 48) defined that techniques are the specific activities manifested in the classroom that are consistent with a method and therefore in harmony with an approach as well.
It can be inferred that techniques are method of specific ways of doing something through the activities. Thus, techniques are really and it is needed to do everything even it is intended to acquire a good result. Furthermore, it may also help teachers to facilitate the students to get the target of language.
Some other supporting techniques that should be carried out in classroom are role play, games, story telling, simulation and discussion. More details each of these techniques will be shown below.
1.1 Role-play
Role-play is way of taking the students out the classroom for a while and showing them how English can be useful for them in certain situation (Byrne, 1987 : 39). Here, the teachers are claimed to be very careful to apply this technique, because not all students feel easy to pretend to be someone else. Thus, as English teacher should remember some points in designing the activities. Probably like keeping the situation simple and providing essential language might be dominantly to be concerned.
Recent study was done by Tompkins (1998 : 1) tell us that role play is an extremely method that can encourage thinking and creativity. Means that, students are expected to develop and practice new language and behavior skills by themselves, while the other side, teachers are merely needed to supply the materials which are completed with clear information and direction. So that the role of teachers only control the students work.
1.2 Group work
Referring to what Brookfield (1990) as citied by Heimlich (1994 : 44), this technique is designed to serve the problem which related to problem solving, issues or concept identification and exploration. Means, the existence of discussion will help students to solve their problem because there are various kinds of members’ characteristics are mixed between slow and fast students, so that they can share and transfer their knowledge each other.
Moreover, he also proves what Jacobson, Eggen, and Kauchak (1993) revealed in their findings that discussion activities are also intended to develop leadership skill, summarize group opinion, move the group to consensus, require listening skill, also permit the learners to handle controversial topics, force participants to use paraphrasing skill, develop self-directed learning skills, and enhance the ability of participant to analyze, synthesize and evaluate.
1.3 Pair work
Byrne (1987 : 31) said in the book technique of classroom interaction that pair work as apart from open pairs where the students talk to one another across the class under teachers’ control. This idea reflects to what Harmer (1987 : 207) stated in the book of The Practice of English Language Teaching that pair work is a way of increasing students participation in language use. Actually pair work is a technique that should be applied in learning the target language especially in teaching speaking, because by using this technique the students will acquire widely opportunities to practice the language being learnt, they are also expected to be familiar with any tasks given. Moreover they are also required to perform it directly.
In applying this technique the teachers are demanded do designed the activities and organize carefully in order to avoid monotonous. Perhaps the teachers can keep students are placed in strong students or they make combination of pair inter class. Harmer (1987) recommended as follows :
Divide the students into pairs in the most convenient ways possible, make sure that the students know exactly what they have to do, keep the activities simple avoid the activities go on too long, carry selective checking, control the noise level as necessarily, and provide feedback (p.208).
It can be inferred that in designing the activities for applying pair work technique should consider the level of students capability and the atmosphere of classroom, so that the students will be familiar with any materials which are relevant to the target language being learnt.
1.4 Story telling
This technique is designed to prepare the students to have capability of oral communication. It also purposes to make students accustomed to listening and speaking. Here, the students are provided and directed to conform the outline of the story that would be delivered in order to make students easily telling it. But the teachers have to precede emphasize on the characteristics of the rules. Firstly, make sure that students are forbidden to read the story, if the teacher allow them to see the text, means the teachers probably are already kill the story. Secondly, make sure that students should watch others’ faces. Here, watching to everybody’s faces is very important because every expressions produced determine whether students are interested in, bored, or in puzzled.
1.5 Simulation
This technique is related to Jones’ idea (1982) as revealed by Tompkins (1998), he states that another approach often used in language teaching simulation, where the event is not happened in reality as it what role-play applied, moreover, simulation also requires a structure built around some problems and it must be sufficiently explicit to preserve the reality of function.
Although role play and simulation are quite similar, there are two major distinctions exist between both of them. A role play includes an audience role, whereas a simulation involves all participants in the action, moreover, a role play focuses on the effective relationships, while simulation focuses on an outcome.
1.6 Games
There are some valuable language games that may foster the teachers to avoid students’ fed up to learn English. Moreover, the games may make the class enjoyable for students. There can also be effective for classroom practice especially in speaking. Those are guessing games, questionnaires, and quizzes. There are some tasks that teachers instruct the students to do the activities in guessing games as Byrne claimed (1987 : 21) :
Name the object, spell the name of object, say something about the object, say what they would do with the object if they had it, make up sentence using the object, link the object on the right to the left object.

Meanwhile, questionnaires are also designed to make the students practice real class condition.
2. Students’ interaction
Based on the views explored widely above, all of the instructional approaches aim to increase and develop students competence in the language, oral or written. To realize the aims, syllabus design must be arranged closely with the students’ need in the real life situation. Hence, increasing and developing teacher-students and students-students interaction is focus of teacher technique/strategy in teaching and learning process.
In order to realize the international competence, the instructional theory widely explored above can be adapted in teaching-learning process. The interaction between the teacher and students is aimed to increase students’ proficiency in English.

CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY OF THE RESEARCH

1. Research design
The research was carried out to describe students opinions, perceptions toward the teaching English by using techniques. Moreover, the researcher wanted to know the effectiveness of the techniques in increasing students interaction in EFL classroom.
2. Setting of the research
This research was conducted by asking students opinion and perception based on their experience in learning English. The question was given by the researcher to the students in written. They answered some questions on a piece of paper provided.
3. Subject of the study
The subjects of this study were students of SMA Islam As-Syafi’iyah Sukabumi at the third class. There are consists of 2 classes, social and science classes. Social Class has 26 students and science class has 25 students. The subject are taken randomly. Researcher was taken 15 students in each class. Number of sample in this research was 30 students. All of the students have been learning English since the first class and have been thought by the different teacher.
4. Technique of data collection
The data were collected by giving the students a questionnaire to find out the students’ opinions and perceptions based on their experiences in learning English.
5. Technique of data analysis
In the process of data analysis, the data were presented in a list of students’ opinions and perceptions in learning English. Then their opinion and perception were tallied on the kind of learning English, by using techniques. If mostly students say / state that teacher who thought using techniques are better and more interested than not, means that the employing of techniques in teaching and learning process of English were effective. Finally, their opinions and perceptions were compared, to find out the effectiveness of teaching technique in learning English.

CHAPTER IV
RESEACH RESULT AND DISCUSSION


A. RESEARCH FINDING
The data of this research was students’ opinion in implementing of teaching technique to increase their spoken interaction in EFL classroom. From 30 respondents that was taken as sample in this research, can be described the result as follows:
1. From 30 respondents, 20 or 67 % respondents reveal that the teacher usually open the lesson by greeting and warming up first. So, students are guided their brain to come to the English material indirectly.
2. Asking about the language medium that teacher used in instructing the subject, 15 / 50 % respondents stated that the English teacher used English as language instruction. Meanwhile, when they were asked whether they understood or not, 5 respondents/17 % answered yes, 18 respondents / 60 % were doubt by choosing sometimes and 7 respondents / 23,3 % didn’t understand.
3. The researcher also asked them whether they were sleepy and bored when the teaching and learning process taken place. 5 respondents / 17 % answered yes, 20 respondents revealed sometimes and 5 respondents stated no. But when they were asked why they were sleepy and bored when the process of teaching and learning in the classroom, 19 students/63,3 % stated that they were sleepy and bored fastly because of uninterested / traditional/monotones techniques which was used by the teacher, 8 respondents / 27 % were doubt, and 3 students / 10 % stated no. It indicated that various techniques implemented by the teacher could reduce students’ saturated in teaching and learning process.
4. Based on the effect of various techniques implemented by the teacher in stimulating students participations, 20 respondents / 67% revealed that various techniques made them interested and stimulated to follow the lesson, 7 students / 23,3% were doubt by choosing sometimes and 3 students / 3,3% stated no. Means that Mostly students were interested and stimulated to participate in the classroom.
5. Various techniques also made them understand faster rather than monotonous / traditional one. The research result indicated that 24 students / 80 % revealed yes or 5 17% were doubt (sometimes) and 1 student / 3,3 % didn’t.
6. The researcher also gave them a question about stimulus that was given by the teacher in practicing English everyday. 15 / 50% of the students stated that stimulus that was given by teacher could increase their motivation and also fully attention in learning English yes, 9 students / 30 % were doubt (sometimes) and 6 students / 20% didn’t.
7. To find out their purpose in learning English, the students were asked about their motivation and purposes in learning English. Most of them stated that they learnt in order to be bale to speak in English, some of them revealed in order to be able to answer of the English test (UAS/UAN) and so on.
8. The researcher also asked them whether stimulus from the teacher could increase their motivation and participation particularly in speaking, 22 respondents / 73% agreed with it, 6 respondents/16,6% were doubt and 2 persons/6,7% weren’t.
Moreover, Researcher also gave students some essay questions based on their opinion and perception in learning English using different techniques. Mostly are interested and motivated in following process of learning English. They argued that teaching and learning process with various models/technique wanted that in teaching and learning process, the teacher should prepare a suitable techniques in term of teaching speaking English. Furthermore, they wish in teaching and learning process should focus on students-oriented / students centered. Means that Students are guided to do something themselves under control of teacher as facilitator in the classroom.
2. DISCUSSION
The topic discuss about the result of the study, that is in what extent the techniques in teaching and learning process can increase students’ interaction in EFL class. As explained previous that mostly students considered that techniques which is applied by teacher in teaching and learning process could increase and improve students ability to comprehend the English material, especially in term of students’ interaction in the classroom. From the data described above could be concluded that from 30 students as respondents in this research, 20 students or 67 % revealed that the teacher should give pre activities first by greeting, warming students up, so the brain of the learners became fresh.
Meanwhile, based on the medium which was used by teacher in guiding the lesson, they agreed if the teacher uses English as language guiding, even though some of them didn’t understand et all entirely what teacher said. But, most of students argued that by using English in guiding students’ learning, at least, they could practice and train their ear to listen again and again. Moreover, it can motivate students to imitate what teacher expressed in English.
The main issues has been asked to students, whether techniques in teaching and learning process might be increase their motivation, activeness, attention and also their comprehension to the materials. 20 students or around 67 % revealed that various methods made them interested to follow the subject actively. Furthermore, they were also able to comprehend what teacher explained. Even though, 24 students / 80 % stated that techniques/methods that’s applied by teacher could be understood/comprehended faster rather than monotonous/traditional techniques.

CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION


A. CONCLUSION
1. Students were interested to learn English as foreign language in order to be able to communicate in English, answer of test (UAS, UAN, SMPB) etc.
2. Students had problems in terms of teaching learning process. They wish the instructor/guide should prepare themselves by mastering English materials, and also various kinds of teaching techniques, especially in teaching speaking.
3. They had different motivation and comprehension in learning English. One of the main factors to enhance their motivation and understanding were the implementing of various kinds of techniques in process of learning English
4. Techniques in teaching and learning process must be mastered and owned by teacher.
5. The effect of using technique / method in teaching and learning process were perceived by students as a good activity, because it could increase their motivation and comprehension in following the learning process.
B. SUGGESTION
1. To improve students’ motivation in teaching and learning process, the English teachers should prepare themselves by adequate materials and apply various kinds of techniques / methods.
2. Government could be a facilitator in term of teachers’ training, in order to increase teachers’ ability in teaching English particularly.
3. The researcher realizes that this research is not really perfect yet, because of limitations. Further researcher with various population are recommended to make finding more accurate.


BIBLIOGHRAPHY


Alwashilah, Chaedar A. 2004 Perspektif Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris di Indonesia dalam Konteks Persaingan Global, Bandung : CV. Andira
Arikunto, Suharsimi 2002 Prosedur Penelitian Suatu Pendekatan Praktis. Jakarta : Rineka Cipta
Brown, H.D. 2000 Teaching by Principles, an Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, New York : Longman
Byrne, Donn 1980 English Teaching perspective, Singapore : Longman
Harmer, Jeremy 2002 The Practice of English Language Teaching, New York : Longman
Harmer, Jeremy 2003 How to Teach English, New York : Longman
Huda, Nuril 1999 Language Learning and Teaching Issues and Trends, Malang : IKIP Malang Publisher
Wright, Andrew dkk 1995 Games for Language Learning, New York : Cambridge University press

THEORY OF TEACHING ENGLISH AS FOREIGN LANGUAGE (TEFL)

THEORY OF TEACHING ENGLISH AS FOREIGN LANGUAGE (TEFL)
FOR YOUNG CHILDREN IN INDONESIA
Writer : jasmansyah
to fulfill the task of English for Children Course
Postgraduate program at UPI Bandung.


A. INTRODUCTION
In Indonesian context, English as a foreign language has been learned by learners since they were in Junior High School, even in some schools since Elementary School. They have been learned English because of the difference reasons / factors, such as: they are interested to learn English and want to be able to master it for the future ambitions, or might be forced by the rule of government in which make it as compulsory subject for students from Elementary School up to Senior High School.
Nowadays, the suspicious to learn English is not only come from the learners themselves, but also from their parents. Many parents are proud if their children can speak and master English earlier. Therefore, they manage to encourage their children to learn seriously in formal course. Even though, most of parents ask their children to learn English in Course institution with the expensive fee, since 5 or 6 years old (kindergarten). They do this, because of their awareness how important of English is for the future time.
Problem would be appeared then to the teacher, when the teaching and learning process take place. They face some problems based on How to teach them in order to gain satisfied result. The teacher should prepare and find out the appropriate techniques which is applied to the students. A good teacher should prepare his/herself by various and up to date techniques, mastering the material in order to understandable by students, and also children should perceive interested and happy in teaching and learning process in the classroom.
The teachers should aware that teaching English for young learners / children are different than adults. The children are not miniature of adults. The teacher also have to know who children are and how they learn?. To answer these questions, the teacher could be motivated and encouraged to prepare a good techniques, a suitable material in order to gain the target of language teaching to the children.
Unlike adults who can learn very comfortable from parts to whole, learn formally in the classroom by following and attending teachers’ explanation in the classroom, children tend to learn things holistically, in the form of scripts (such as eating in the restaurant, going to school, going to bank etc). This tendency is reflected very well in children’s play such as playing “school teachers and students”, “a doctor and patients” and “sellers and buyers”. For children, therefore, things are easy to learn when they are in their contextual totally. In Addition, children will find things meaningful, interesting, and functional when they can relate these things with their needs and personal experience (Bachrudin : 2003).

B. THEORIES OF TEACHING ENGLISH AS FOREIGN LANGUAGE (TEFL)
FOR YOUNG LEARNERS
1. Becoming A Teacher of Young Children
Today’s early childhood educator must be able to capture the intellectual though and creative spirit of education pioneers of the past. Although early childhood education is an accepted part of schooling today, the challenges facing teachers are no less than those faced by the early education pioneers. More than ever before, the early childhood educator must be tough-minded pioneer, able to dare, risk, try, innovate, and experiment.
Before deciding to become a teacher of young children, we should fully recognize the complexities of the position. Teaching young children is hard. “The younger the child the more it is to teach him and more pregnant that teaching is with future consequences’ (Piaget : 1971 in Carol Scefeldt : 1980).
2. Getting To Know The Children
If want to become one of those teachers who really care, who can really make a difference, we’ll have to get to know children. Getting to know the children requires some works. Children are complex individuals, in many ways they’re like, yet it each is so very different. Learning to observe objectively and carefully, and learning to use observations, the teacher can note and record children physical development, social and emotional growth and intellectual progress in order to meet individual needs and strengthen or promote individual abilities. Observation may be shared with other professional and parents.
3. Learning Children With Special Needs
“Many teachers of handicapped children have observed that once they come to feel ease and capable of meeting the special needs related to a particular condition. They view children with disabilities differently: it become apparent that the handicapped child’s basis needs are the same, except in degree, as those of all children” (Responding to individual needs 1976, p.1).
Working with children who are gifted, abused or handicapped does, however require careful planning. First, we should be able to asses each individual children using skills observation and result of standardized testing. Next we can work with specialists or other staff members to help plan the best classroom spaces, management and program to meet the needs of all children. Consultation with parents, physicians, social service agencies, and needed. Federal and state laws mandate mainstreaming the handicapped, the abused, and the gifted. Implementing those programs creatively and intelligently offer exiting and challenging opportunities for both teachers and children.
4. Planning And Evaluation
Teachers select and plan for children’s learning. They base the selection of activities on their own values, the goals of the program, and on the needs of all of children. They prepare children to be effective members of a democratic society. In planning, whether for short-term daily plans or for long range plans, we should be able to identify how children will change as a result of their experience.
Evaluation is an essential part of planning, information for evaluating a program can be found in observation of individual children, standardized tests, conferences with parents, or informal rating scales. Some standards of evaluation are even built into lesson plan. Evaluation includes focus on children and the total program.
5. Learning Strategies For Young Learners
As stated previous, children are different than adults. In teaching and learning process, they are also must be taught differently. A suitable strategies may be more motivated children to participate in the classroom.
5.1 Telling
At times, even young children learn by being told. Sometimes it is necessary for an adult to tell a child, Such as “Stop, the light is red”, or “Hang your coat here”, “Don’t be noise” etc. Teacher should and must at times give an explanation, state a rule, provide a name of object, or quickly and efficiently reassure the children verbally by commenting “Thunder makes a lot of noise, but it can not hurt us”


5.2 Reinforcing
Whenever a teacher smiles at a child, gives a quick hug, wink, praises, or on the other hand punishes and ignores some behavior or action of a child, he is using the principles of behavior modification. Whether or not teachers are aware of it, they are continually reinforcing, rewarding, ignoring, and punishing children’s behavior.
When a child receives a reinforcement for some behavior, which might be anything from smile of word praise, to food, money, or a token which can be exchanged for some desired object; it increases the probability that the child will repeat the behavior. On the other hand, when undesirable behavior is ignored, when no reinforcement in the form of recognition, or even punishment, is given, the child will probably not continue or repeat the behavior. Reinforcement promotes learning and increases positive behaviors. It is positive teaching strategy, as opposed to punishment which is negative. The technique of reinforcement is so powerful and effective that it is the basis of animal training.
5.3 Giving feedback
Giving feedback, letting children to know how they are progressing, is in fact a type of reinforcement. The teacher in giving feedback, it is not only recognizing the child for some achievement, a demonstrated skill or behavior, but also at the same time is giving the child some explicit information about that behavior.
Feedback like all teaching strategies, must begin with an understanding of individual children. The teacher cues from each child in order to know what type of feedback will be useful. Feedback can also be used to suggest problem solutions to children what would be happen if?. Children can be encouraged to complete a task and stay with a project.
5.4 Modeling
Every action, non-action, and reaction every bit of verbal and nonverbal behavior of the teacher is noted by children, and many of these behaviors become incorporated into children’s repertoires. Children learn from copying the behavior of their teachers. Almy (1975) writes:
Teacher may not be fully aware of the extent to which what they do becomes a pattern for the children to follow …… it is also evident that in the facilitating function where the teacher’s expletory and investigate attitude toward materials can be copied by the children. Furthermore one only has to observe the way children in some classrooms take care of each other and provide comfort in the time of distress to realize that the care taking and guidance functions of the teacher can also be copied by the children. (Almy : 1975)
Knowing that children do model their behaviors on others. Teachers have a responsibility to exhibit behavior that worthy of being emulated. Teachers should attempt to analyze their attitudes, values, and behaviors in order to present children with those that are prosocial and will transmit the values inherent in a democratic society.
5.5. Working with group
Some teaching strategies are useful when working with children in group. Children, like all humans, are social beings and take great pleasure in being with others. Young children, however, have difficulty learning to work in a group. Their attention spans are short, they can not sit still for long, and their egocentric thought gets in the way of understanding one another. Even though it is difficult for young children to work together, to become a part of a group, it is something everyone wants to, and must learn.
Group activities help children develop the skills of interaction that will permit them to enter into the social world. In addition, participation in a group strengthens cognitive ability. When children are together with another, they are forced to see alternative points of view and to readjust their thinking to that of group. When children share in group discussion, they begin to recognize that others have ideas, and they may see the same event in different ways.
5.6 Nurturing
The ability to give children the nurturance they need is strategy of the successful teachers. Nurturance, feeling the warmth and approval of another , is prerequisite to intellectual growth. Only as children feel secure, loved, and nurtured, do they have the confidence, support, and security they need to risk learning new things and to reach out to others.
Children can be nurtured in many ways. Teachers must be sensitive to the needs of each child and know which children are made comfortable by just a smile or nonphysical expression of nurturance and which children need hugs, holding, and pat on the back. Knowledge of the backgrounds of the children often helps teacher to understand each child’s needs.
5.7 Observing
As the children work and play, the teacher maintains the active role of observer. The entire group of children, small groups working together and each individual child receive the teacher’s observations.
Observing and keeping an eye on everything and everyone at the same time, the teacher maintains control over the group, even when the children are actively involved in individual , self-initiated activities. All teachers who have worked with young children can relate a time when, somehow, intuitively, they knew something was wrong or disaster was approaching.
Observing is a strategy that is ongoing. Teacher observe throughout the day as children relate to each other, their parents and the material.

C. SOME THEORIES IN TEACHING NUMBERS FOR YOUNG LEARNERS (pronunciation, counting skills and telephone numbers).
In teaching English as foreign language, the teacher should be clever to identify and determine what is appropriate techniques in teaching a particular topics. It influences the attendance of students in the classroom. A suitable techniques might be encourage students to learn active and happily. Hence, the material that is transferred by teachers might not rubbish and knowledgeable by students.
Teaching numbers for children is an interested material if the technique which applied appropriate with students’ need. There are some techniques might be useful and appropriate to the children in teaching about numbers (pronunciation, counting skills and telephone number).
1. Total Physical Response ( TPR )
TPR have been used by teachers, particularly primary school teachers for many thousand of years as evidenced in the following expressions: “stand up”, “sit down”, Clap your hand”, “keep silent” etc. In this method, teaching number for students can be done as follows: “Teacher asks students to show their finger adjusted with teachers’ instruction. For example when teacher says : Five. Student should show their fingers while hand up based on teachers instruction. If students’ response are correct, the TPR are acceptable and understandable by students.
2. Telling stories
Stories for children exist in every country and every culture. Stories can entertain children, educate them and also give children about their culture ability. Telling story is an interesting method for children. Most children are like story. Using this method enable them to train their listening skills, sharpen their brain in taking content of the story. To do this, teacher should choose selectively what is suitable story for children. In addition, The relevance story with the topic should become priority in selecting story. Besides, technique to tell the story enable students to participate and listen actively.
Bachrudin M. : 2003 writes some advantages of stories for children, such as:
1. Stories are motivating and fun. They create a desire in children to continue learning.
2. Stories exercise the imagination helping children develop their own creative powers
3. Stories help children to link fantasy with the real world
3. Games
Games are interested activity for children. Most of them like games very much. To accommodate their need, teacher could apply this kind of technique to transfer the material to the children. This is applied to answer a question “Who children are and How they learn?”.
In choosing games, teachers also must be selective. It must be adjusted with the topic that is being discussed, and how interested the games for children at the time. By applying this, students are expected to be active in the classroom, and reduce of students boring in the teaching and learning process.
4. Using Song, Rhymes, Finger Plays
Song, rhymes and finger plays are kind of models in teaching children. Basically, children like sing and also listen a song. These could be applied to children in order to be able to gain of learning target. Many songs and rhymes for young children are designed to incorporate action, and the finger play is a rhyme built entirely around the use of hand and the finger to enter into the performance of a rhyme. Playing finger can be applied in teaching numbers. Teacher can show to the children number of finger, and let them mention in English the number finger that teachers’ show.
5. Using Media
Media is very useful in encouraging children’s motivation in learning. A appropriate media for a certain subject/topic may influence the comprehension level of children in particular topic. There are some medias could be used in teaching and learning for children:
5.1 Cards
5.2 Pictures
5.3 Real object
5.4 Video and Audio visual
5.5 Etc.
6. Role play
Children like to act out. They are interested to imitate what the ever seen on TV or movie. Role play will make children happy interested to participate in the classroom, because they can do that while playing, laughing, even move one to another places. To apply this, teacher could divide children into some groups, then determine each children as an actor or an actress. Teacher should prepare a short and funny story that relate to the topic. Then children are asked to act out with their friend based on scenario.


Sourcer : any sources

Journal review "The Development of Communicative Abilities within Small Group Contexts: A Cross Cultural Perspective"

Journal review
“The Development of Communicative Abilities within Small Group Contexts: A Cross Cultural Perspective”
By: B. Campbell et al
Penulis review : Roy G. & jasmansyah
Introduction

Interacting with foreigners is always interesting but it can also present some problems. The problems may draw back from their back home cultural condition or situation. One who would speak if only he/she is asked to do so would encounter problems when discussing something with those who are egalitarian and accustomed to speaking impromptu on certain topics of discussion.
Such situation also happens to some polish citizens who studied in UK. They once lived for three generation within a communist system of economic and political control that influenced all domains of public life. This made them become citizens with such characteristics as conformism, passiveness, an absence of engagement with economic life and an apparent lack of responsibility for planning and managing their daily lives. Engagement in such strategies may be associated with the emergence of psychological barriers that can frustrate the process of economic transformation that is currently taking place in Poland. It seems likely that as Poland embraces capitalist economic and political systems, its citizens will be become obliged to develop a greater sense of personal responsibility. The ability to communicate will be central to this.
The study becomes very interesting to me for it digs up the process of improving communicative abilities by giving microtraining to a group of respondents. This will obviously gives us good insight of how such abilities improves and whether the improvement is significant after the training was given.

Content

The journal is particularly concerned with a fact that the acquisition of specific communication abilities deemed functional in one culture may not be so in another. Even if it is accepted that certain communication abilities such as empathy, respect, non-judgmentalness, and decision making can be defined, it cannot be assumed that these transcend cultural boundaries; the way these are expressed behaviorally (skills) and interpreted by oneself and others, may vary considerably from one culture to another. This necessarily brings people to the notion of communication competence, a challenging concept that can be described as a kind of social attribution, one that permits communication skill assessments to be made from both the 'self' and 'other' perspective; this emphasizes the dynamic nature of interpersonal communication and the complexity of its context. In essence it is drawn to what is described in the intercultural literature as the culture-general versus the culture specific controversy. Importantly, communicative competence and ability must be seen as much more than simply the acquisition and employment of a range of universal demonstrable behaviors.
The study explores the usefulness of a Manchester Metropolitan University (MMU) designed program for use with Polish students. An integral part of this package is the assumption that increased self-awareness is an essential component of communicative ability and that this can be raised 'as appropriate'. Parallel with the prior discussion, this may be an inappropriate assumption; it is a suspect that participants' learning styles, their knowledge of self and others and the impact of cultural imperatives will be of profound importance in the process of skill acquisition and differ significantly across the two cultures.
This study attempts to explore the role and contribution of aspects of self belief to the development of communicative ability within the small group, therefore the author has constructed three working hypotheses which formally stated are; 1) Before experience of training the correspondence between perceived self efficacy expectations and performance in respect of the ability to manage small group discussion will be higher for MMU students than those from the University of Lodz; 2) This correspondence will not change significantly for the Polish students as a result of exposure to the training program adapted from MMU; 3) MMU students will demonstrate a significantly more enhanced level of declarative knowledge on completion of training than their Polish contemporaries.
The journal provides an account of what is meant by communicative ability in the group context; it follows this with a brief description of the theoretical principles and defining features of the program that we are using; it continues by outlining the first part of our empirical study, designed to measure the participants' self estimates of skill; and finally, it presents and discusses some initial findings.
The study also highlights Four distinct phases of training in the program; the first phase is concerned with staff research efforts to identify key abilities and behaviors, the products of which are used in the didactic elements of the program; the second phase is a classroom based examination of these research findings whereby students are encouraged to reflect upon these in relation to their own life experiences; thirdly, all participants are subsequently involved in the practice and analysis of task related simulated group discussions in the university; and finally all participate in supervised practice in a community setting.
As for the method, in the journal the author decided to carry out a pretest-posttest study, one group design as Nelson-Jones (1991) points out that there are ethical issues entailed in withholding treatment from control groups. Meanwhile, Subjects were 22 students (sixteen females and six males) undertaking the one year full time course leading to the award of the Postgraduate Diploma in Careers Guidance (the professional training course for career guidance practitioners in the UK).
Identified sub skills considered in a ten-session microtraining course were 'set induction', 'focusing', 'encouraging contributions', 'gatekeeping', 'clarifying', 'summarizing' and 'closure'. The program involved elements of sensitization, practice and feedback whereby trainees were given the chance to learn the theoretical background to each skill dimension, to practice the skill in question and obtain feedback on their performance from tutors and their peers.
Upon completion of the microtraining program the students then practiced their skills in a school setting. For a period of six weeks they worked in pairs delivering a one-hour guided group discussion session in a local school each week. Each person was responsible for leading and participating in every discussion. Fifty percent of the sessions were supervised by tutors from the university. This is the regular practice.
To measure the research, the author applies the GGD-SEI consisting of a 19 item self-efficacy self report measure which asks respondents to consider their chances of successful skill performance when making their best effort at guiding a small group in a discussion of a topic that they had previously researched. On a scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (6), participants rated the 19 likert items according to the extent to which they agreed that the items reflected their actual estimate of how they would perform. The response scores were added to give a total score. Higher scores on the GGD-SEI reflect stronger percepts of self-efficacy.

Results

The study uses the Wilcoxon matched pairs signed-rank test to assess the significance of the difference between GGD-SEI scores pre-training (pre-test) and post-training (post-test 1) and after a period of practice in schools (post-test 2). Differences for total and sub-scale scores were examined.
There were highly significant (p <0.01) differences between the total scores of the pre-test and post-test 1 and between pre-test and post-test 2. Inspection of the means shows that on both occasions, the participants developed their self-beliefs. There was also a significant (p<0.05) difference between the total scores post-test 1 and post-test 2. Again, inspection of the means suggests that participants developed a greater sense of their own communicative abilities in the group context. The research indicates significant improvements on some of the sub-scales both at the end of the microtraining program and following a period of practice in the community.
On the `Summarizing' sub-scale, which consists of 8 items, there was a highly significant change between pre-test and post-test 1 and between pre-test and post-test 2 (p <0.01 respectively). As the means illustrate, expectations of the ability to summarize discussion in the small group setting were improved.
On the `Encouraging Contributions and Distributing Participation' sub-scale between pre-test and post-test 2 and between post-test 1 and post-test 2 there were also highly significant changes (p<. 01). Mean scores suggest that expectations of successful performance in this dimension of communicative skill increased. However, the change between pre-test and post-test 1 marginally failed to reach significance at the .05 level. On the `Confidence' sub-scale between pre-test and post-test 2 and between post-test 1 and post-test 2 there were again highly significant changes (p<. 01). The change between pre-test and post-test 1 was also significant (p<. 05). Mean performance on each of these testing occasions increased, suggesting an improved level of self-belief amongst the participants.
The final sub-scale was `Contracting'. Once more there were highly significant changes; in this instance between pre-test and post-test 1 (p<.01) and between pre-test and post-test 2 (p<.01). And there was a significant change (p<.05) between post-test 1 and post-test 2 responses. Mean scores suggest that on each occasion participants raised their levels of expectation of successfully contracting with others in small group activities.

Comments

In line with the underlying problem in this study, LaRay M. Barna states that the problem relates to the high anxiety that often exists in intercultural encounters. Further, Barna says that this anxiety may come from any sources such as assuming that the interlocutor has higher status, elder age, native cultural background, etc.
What seems to be unfortunate for me is that in the journal, the writer doesn’t mention the factor why the program is successful. When we take a look a little bit closer, there are some factors that can make the intercultural competence or ability increases. as Spitzberg suggests that the competence will increase when we are motivated, knowledgeable, possess interpersonal skills, are credible, meet the expectations of our communication partner, can strike a balance between autonomy needs and intimacy needs, reflect similarities, manifest trust, offer social support, and have access to multiple relationships. There should be a further investigation of which factor plays important role in increasing the communication ability in the designed programs. This will make the reader of the journal easier to understand and later, the reader can design the program that accentuates different factors.
Margaret Mead suggests a better approach to solve problem in communication. The suggestion is in line with what Campbell does in this research. The better approach is to begin by studying the history, political structure, art, literature, and language of the country if time permits. This will provide a framework for on-site observation. It seems that Campbell has no enough time to do sort of things. As a result, Campbell only studies the political structure of the respondents.

Conclusion

The program used does seem to be associated with positive change in self-efficacy beliefs for English students. However, to develop a greater understanding of the nature of self-efficacy and its function in communicative acts, this study should develop its research strategy and collect more and varied forms of data. Most importantly, research findings which will help us to decide whether intraculturally derived CST can contribute to the development of communication competence in other cultures. This model of research is applicable in Indonesian situation to promote successful intercultural communication as many foreign students study in Indonesia and they may meet the same situations as Poland people experienced in UK. As a matter of fact, these findings may offer a signpost for further research into the development of intercultural communication competence.

Artikel Bahasa "Politik Senyum dan Diplomasi Kultural

Politik Senyum dan Diplomasi Kultural
Oleh A. CHAEDAR ALWASILAH

TAHUN 2002 menurut Amien Rais adalah tahun yang sangat menyakitkan bagi bangsa Indonesia. Kasus peledakan bom di Bali telah menyudutkan kita bahwa Indonesia sarang teroris. Selain melejitkan tema terorisme, peristiwa Bali juga memunculkan hal "sepele," tetapi serius, yakni politisasi senyum dan jabat tangan tersangka Amrozy dengan Jenderal Polisi Da'i Bachtiar. Bagi pemirsa Australia, peristiwa itu menjengkelkan dan menunjukkan hilangnya rasa penyesalan dan simpati Amrozy bagi mereka yang telah kehilangan saudara atau kekasih tercintanya.
Siapa menyangka bahwa senyum dan jabat tangan akan menjadi tema perbincangan politik antara kedua negara. Andaikan saja Amrozy dapat menahan diri untuk tidak tersenyum terus-menerus dan andaikan publik Australia memahami makna emik (emic perspective) senyuman dalam kultur Indonesia, benturan budaya itu tidak akan dipolitikkan sedemikian gencarnya.
Saya jadi teringat minggu-minggu pertama bekerja sebagai penerjemah bagi konsultan Australia 20 tahun silam. Sebagai sarjana bahasa Inggris, saya dapat berkomunikasi dengan penuh percaya diri. Namun, suatu hari saya merasa dipermalukan. Dia tampak jengkel dan bertanya dengan nada marah, "Kamu menertawakan saya terus. Apa sih yang lucu pada saya?"

Senyum dalam budaya Indonesia
Secara kultural, tampaknya senyum sembarangan hahah-heheh (aimless smiles) sudah inheren dalam pribadi hampir semua orang Indonesia, terutama anak-anak dan orang dewasa saat nervous atau tegang seperti halnya sedang diwawancara, apalagi saat dikerubuti banyak wartawan bule. Para guru sering melihat senyum jenis ini pada siswa-siswa -- terutama SD -- yang tidak mengerjakan PR, datang terlambat atau tidak mampu mengerjakan soal-soal. Dalam contoh-contoh di atas, hahah-heheh tidak menyiratkan rasa gembira, bahagia atau menertawakan seseorang. Senyum jenis ini lebih merupakan kekhasan kultural (cultural mannerism) yang muncul sangat alami dan tanpa disadari.
Variasi atau perbedaan budaya dapat menyebabkan bentrokan kultural dalam kepribadian, cara menyelesaikan persoalan, cara berperilaku, sikap, dan gaya kepemimpinan. Dalam komunikasi silang budaya, seseorang seringkali tidak menyadari asumsi-asumsi kultural yang diyakini mitra bicara.Ia cenderung berperilaku dengan berpijak pada asumsi-asumsi kulturalnya sendiri. Dalam situasi demikian, ia cenderung mentransfer asumsi-asumsi budaya sendiri ke dalam konteks antarbudaya.
Berikut adalah contoh lain gagalnya komunikasi silang budaya sebagaimana dituturkan seorang responden dalam penelitian disertasi saya.
Tersebutlah seorang profesor Amerika beserta istrinya bermaksud menjenguk seorang mahasiswa Indonesia yang sedang dirawat di rumah sakit. Sang profesor menelefonnya terlebih dahulu, namun mahasiswa Indonesia itu dengan penuh hormat dan rasa bangga menjawabnya, "It's not necessary to see me as it would take your precious time. I am just OK."
Maka, berbunga-bungalah hati sang mahasiswa, merasa tersanjung akan dikunjungi profesor. Di luar dugaan, sampai malam hari sang profesor tak kunjung datang. Dalam pikirannya, ia telah mengingkari janji. Dalam pada itu, sang profesor berpikir bahwa mahasiswa itu menolak dikunjungi. Terbukti bahwa niat bersopan santun dan rasa hormat mahasiswa Indonesia itu dimaknai sang profesor Amerika sebagai sebuah penolakan atas kunjungan. Dalam kejadian ini tidak ada pihak yang benar dan salah. Yang pasti, bahwa keduanya menggunakan parameter kultural masing-masing.
Jadi, bagaimana mestinya kita mengatur senyum? Senyum adalah perilaku nonverbal yang seperti halnya perilaku verbal (berbahasa lisan) harus memenuhi empat pakem (maxim) pragmatik seperti diteorikan Grice (1975), yaitu (1) pakem kualitas, bahwa senyum ini harus jelas, benar, tidak pura-pura; (2) pakem kuantitas, bahwa senyum itu harus seperlunya, jangan berlebihan; (3) pakem relevansi, bahwa senyum itu harus relevan (cocok atau tidak) dengan konteks komunikasi; dan (4) pakem perilaku, yakni gaya senyum itu harus sesuai dengan konteksnya.

Sudut pandang budaya ketiga
Seorang komunikator silang budaya seperti diplomat, petugas humas, dan pelaku negosiasi internasional memerlukan pengetahuan yang disebut perspektif budaya ketiga (the third culture perspective). Budaya ketiga adalah budaya yang diperoleh lewat pendidikan dan pengalaman serta terdiri dari budaya sendiri dan budaya asing. Penguasaan sinergi kedua budaya, bahkan berbagai budaya merupakan tujuan instruksional dari perkuliahan pemahaman silang budaya atau cross-cultural understanding yang lazim disingkat CCU.
Dalam konteks keindonesiaan, konflik-konflik antaretnis dan antaragama, sesungguhnya dapat dijelaskan dengan teori komunikasi ini. Pemahaman silang budaya terasa sangat penting diajarkan, ditinjau dari perspektif internasional maupun nasional. Sayangnya, sistem pendidikan nasional kita selama ini belum maksimal mengajarkan kepada anak didik kesadaran dan apresiasi budaya etnis lain.
Seperti dikupas di atas, komunikator yang baik memiliki sudut pandang budaya ketiga untuk mewujudkan harmoni kultural yang pada intinya memerlukan tiga hal, yaitu pemahaman, toleransi, dan fleksibilitas.
Di sekolah melalui kegiatan ekstrakurikuler seperti karawitan dan tari nusantara, termasuk bahasa, musik, dan pakaiannya, para siswa dapat dilatih untuk mampu mengapresiasi perbedaan-perbedaan budaya etnis. Begitu mereka mampu mengapresiasi perbedaan-perbedaan etnis dalam konteks nusantara, akan mudah bagi mereka untuk mengapresiasi perbedaan-perbedaan dalam konteks internasional.

Pembelajaran bahasa asing
Pada umumnya orang percaya bahwa penguasaan bahasa asing merupakan kunci suksesnya komunikasi global. Namun, dari contoh-contoh di atas, terbukti bahwa penguasaan bahasa asing saja tidaklah memadai. Pengetahuan linguistik dan kultural adalah dua hal yang berbeda. Komunikator yang baik mesti memiliki keterampilan berbahasa asing dalam konteks budayanya. Dengan kata lain, pembelajar harus diajari keterampilan berbahasa asing dengan pengetahuan dan pengalaman kulturnya..
Pembicaraan di atas mengingatkan kita akan kualitas pengajaran berbagai bahasa asing di Indonesia. Sekarang ini bahasa asing yang banyak diajarkan di sekolah dan PT adalah bahasa Inggris, Jerman, Prancis, Jepang, Arab, dan Cina. Pertanyaan kita, sejauh manakah muatan-muatan budaya dan pemahaman silang budaya diintegrasikan ke dalam kurikulum bahasa-bahasa asing tersebut?
Untuk mengantisipasi komunikasi global, kita perlu menyertakan dimensi kelima dari bahasa. Secara tradisional, pembelajaran bahasa diartikan sebagai penguasaan empat keterampilan, yaitu menyimak, berbicara, membaca, dan menulis. Dimensi kelima dimaksud adalah pengetahuan budaya dari bahasa yang dipelajari. Guru bahasa asing yang profesional dituntut untuk memiliki kelima aspek itu.
Sebagai bahan perbandingan, perusahaan-perusahaan Amerika menghabiskan jutaan dolar untuk membiayai program-program pelatihan silang budaya (lazim disebut cultural orientation) bagi karyawannya yang akan ditempatkan di luar negeri agar mereka tidak mengalami kaget budaya atau culture shock. Dalam pada itu, hampir pada semua program sekolah bisnis (program MBA) ada mata kuliah international trade yang mencakup kajian comparative business culture.
Budaya Jepang, Amerika Latin, dan Cina -- khususnya budaya popnya -- sudah lama diperkenalkan lewat tayangan film-film dalam semua TV kita selama ini. Pertanyaan kita, sejauh mana budaya Indonesia diperkenalkan di luar negeri? Kita ragu apakah lembaga-lembaga pemerintah kita memiliki lembaga seperti The Japan Foundation, The British Council, USIS, dan CCF?

Membangun corong umat Islam
Ledakan bom di Bali tahun lalu -- suka atau tidak -- telah membuat citra Indonesia "negatif" di mata dunia. Bangsa kita dan umat Islam pada khususnya kini mendapat tekanan dunia internasional. Ini terbukti dengan dikeluarkannya travel warnings kepada warga negaranya oleh beberapa negara asing, khususnya Amerika, Australia, dan Inggris.
Apakah lembaga-lembaga perwakilan kita di luar negeri memiliki sumber daya manusia bidang PR (public relations) yang profesional? Tugas mereka antara lain mendesain program-program penyebaran informasi ihwal Indonesia secara terus-menerus. Program-program demikian membangun citra Indonesia di luar negeri dan membantu terwujudnya pemahaman silang budaya antara bangsa Indonesia dan bangsa lain. Mereka berkewajiban untuk segera menghapus citra "negatif" selama ini.
Dalam pada itu, organisasi-organisasi dan lembaga-lembaga Islam di Indonesia sudah saatnya memiliki petugas-petugas PR yang bukan hanya memiliki pengetahuan luas ihwal ajaran agama dan keorganisasian Islam, tetapi juga mampu berkomunikasi dalam bahasa-bahasa asing, khususnya Inggris dan Arab dengan menggunakan segala jenis media. Manajemen PR ini tampaknya merupakan salah satu titik lemah organisasi-organisasi keislaman di Indonesia. Abad kini adalah abad teknologi informasi. Hanya komunikator-komunikator profesional yang akan mampu membangun citra di mata dunia internasional. ***

Penulis adalah Wakil Ketua Pusat Studi Sunda

Ada Apa dengan Ilmu Bahasa?

Ada Apa dengan Ilmu Bahasa?
Oleh : Prof. DR. A. CHAEDAR ALWASILAH, MA.


KATA ungkapan Arab, alinsan hayawan nathiq, artinya manusia adalah hewan yang mampu berpikir. tampaknya, klaim ini tidak otomatis berarti bahwa setiap manusia mampu berpikir kritis. Mungkin lebih tepat diartikan sebagai makhluk yang memiliki potensi untuk berpikir kritis, seperti halnya potensi atau bekal kodrati (innate capacity) untuk menguasai bahasa yang dominan di lingkungannya.
Para pengamat bahasa sudah lama menyaksikan lemahnya disiplin berbahasa di kalangan ilmuwan dan birokrat. Lihat saja saat mereka diwawancara wartawan TV. Banyak yang bahasanya tidak bernalar, alias amburadul. Rohaniawan Franz Magnis-Suseno berpendapat bahwa kerancuan berbahasa ini merupakan akibat malas berpikir.
Para peneliti sudah mengidentifikasi sejumlah kesalahan sintaksis dalam berbahasa, antara lain: subjek kalimat tidak jelas, kekacauan penggunaan kata kerja aktif-pasif dalam kalimat, preposisi dalam kalimat tidak tepat, kata transisi tidak tepat pada bagian awal kalimat, kata perangkai di dalam kalimat tidak tepat, diksi tidak tepat dalam mengungkapkan kalimat, ada bagian kalimat tidak berkoherenasi, hubungan kalimat-kalimat tidak kohesif, ketidaksejajaran bentuk(an) kata dalam kalimat, aksentuasi dalam kalimat tidak jelas, susunan kata (bagian kalimat) tidak logis, variasi kata dalam kalimat tidak tepat, tidak berkaidah ejaan dan tanda baca, makna kalimat tidak jelas, dan hubungan paragraf-paragraf tidak logis.
Bila bahasa diyakini sebagai alat berpikir, studi ilmu bahasa (linguistik dan sastra) seyogianya membekali mahasiswa (apalagi dosennya) kemampuan berpikir kritis (KBK), lebih kritis daripada mahasiswa dan dosen bidang studi lain. Bila bahasa diyakini sebagai alat komunikasi, studi ilmu bahasa (linguistik dan sastra) seyogianya membekali mahasiswa (apalagi dosennya) kemampuan berkomunikasi tulis, lebih produktif dan komunikatif daripada mahasiswa dan dosen bidang studi lain.
Namun, dalam kenyataan, kedua hipotesis di atas tidak terbukti. Banyak orang yang kritis dan produktif berkarya tulis padahal mereka tidak berlatar belakang linguistik atau sastra. Artinya, penguasaan pengetahuan kebahasaan, baik pengetahuan deklaratif maupun prosedural, tidak menjamin KBK maupun produktivitas berkarya tulis. Persoalannya, ada apa dengan linguistik?
Linguistik secara keseluruhan membantu kita lebih memahami fenomena kebahasaan daripada fenomena sosial. Temuan ini bisa dijelaskan dengan pendekatan Saussure yang sejak awal menekankan bahasa lisan sebagai objek utama kajian linguistik modern. Mudah dipahami bila linguistik diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Arab sebagai Allisaniyat bukan Ilmu Lughat.

Perkuliahan linguistik
Sebanyak 73 mahasiswa semester 8 yang telah mengambil 22 sks mata kuliah linguistik di¬survei untuk mengetahui pandangan mereka ihwal kontribusi mata-mata kuliah itu bagi pengembangan KBK. Para responden sudah cukup matang untuk bersikap kritis ihwal praktik pendidikan yang mereka lakoni selama ini.
Mayoritas responden (72%) menilai bahwa secara keseluruhan bangsa Indonesia kurang mampu berpikir kritis, dan ini disebabkan oleh dua hal, yaitu pendidikan di Indonesia tidak membuat siswa berpikir kritis (46%), dan budaya Indonesia lebih berkarakter feodal (41%). Sebagai mahasiswa, mereka merasa memiliki KBK, dan kemampuan ini terutama disebabkan oleh pendidikan yang mereka peroleh (57%) dan karena pergaulan dan lingkungan tempat mereka tinggal (40%). Hanya 0,13% dari mereka yang menyebutkan karena mengambil perkuliahan linguistik.
Bagi mayoritas reponden (72%), bahasa Indonesia lebih berperan sebagai alat berinteraksi sosial dan hanya 0,41% yang menganggapnya sebagai alat berpikir. Artinya mereka hampir tidak merasa bahwa berpikir itu dengan bahasa. Ini mungkin berarti (1) berkomunikasi atau berbahasa (lisan) tidak identik dengan berpikir, (2) adanya bermacam tingkatan berpikir, dari yang tidak disadari sampai yang sangat disadari, dan (3) berpikir mungkin tidak selalu difasilitasi bahasa, karena yang berlogika itu si penutur, bukan bahasa.
Manfaat perkuliahan linguistik bagi responden terutama membantu memahami fenomena bahasa (57%) dan fenomena sosial (23%). Perkuliahan linguistik juga membuat mereka lebih sadar akan perilaku bahasa lisan (32%) daripada bahasa tulis (15%) pada diri sendiri, terutama pada orang lain. Andaikan ada kontribusinya terhadap KBK, yang paling berkontribusi adalah sosiologi bahasa (71%) dan yang paling tidak berkontribusi adalah fonetik dan fonologi (65%).
Mayoritas responden melihat akademisi yang kritis adalah mereka yang banyak karya tulisnya (53%) dan cenderung berbeda pendapat dengan orang lain (34%). Tidak satu responden pun (0%) menyebut tingginya gelar akademis sebagai indikator KBK. Agar mahasiswa mampu berpikir kritis, para responden menyarankan agar kurikulum S-1 menumbuhkan suasana pembelajaran demokratis di kelas dan dalam konsultasi dengan dosen (71%).

Pendidikan, Nalar, dan Bahasa
Nalar, seperti halnya matematika dan bahasa, lebih merupakan fasilitator daripada inisiator. Kita menggunaan nalar untuk mendapatkan yang kita mau bukan untuk menentukan yang kita mau. Menurut Calne dalam Batas Nalar: Rasionalitas dan Perilaku Manusia (2004), nalar, bahasa, dan matematika sama-sama berakar pada asal-usul yang begitu dinamis dan praktis, namun demikian dengan terbentuknya data base budaya kita, dari generasi ke generasi, ketiganya mampu mencapai puncak abstrak yang tak terkira tingginya. Nalar sudah dinaikkan ke tingkat logika simbolik, bahasa ke tingkat puisi metafisik, dan matematika ke tingkat teori probabilitas.
Nalar merajut argumen, sedangkan tata bahasa merajut kalimat, dan kosa-kata adalah simbol dari konsep-konsep. Perkuliahan linguistik secara keseluruhan pada dasarnya membekali mahasiswa pengetahuan ihwal bahasa yang berguna untuk merajut kalimat. Ini sama sekali tidak menjamin bahwa mahasiswa akan produktif merajut kalimat apalagi dalam wujud karya tulis. Dengan demikian, dapat dikatakan bahwa menguasai linguistik adalah X, dan berpikir kritis adalah Y. Antara X dan Y tidak ada kaitan sebab-akibat, tetapi saling memengaruhi. Pasti.
Kekuatan otak tidak berubah sejak Homo sapiens, umat manusia pertama kali muncul 200.000 tahun yang lalu, yang berevolusi adalah nalar (Calne 2004: 25), yakni tata bahasanya argumen. Nalar dan bahasa berkembang sama-sama sejak usia dini dan saling bergantung. Buktinya, antara lain, argumen-argumen dinyatakan lewat proposisi-proposisi, yakni kalimat-kalimat. Artinya, bernalar seperti halnya berbahasa harus dikembangkan lewat pembelajaran, baik formal maupun informal.
Pendidikan nasional sekarang ini belum membuat siswa berpikir kritis. Selama ini pendidikan bahasa melatih berbahasa sebagai proses berkomunikasi dengan kadar nalar yang rendah. Ini terbukti dengan amburadulnya bahasa di kalangan kaum terdidik Indonesia, yang tidak mungkin terjadi pada kaum terdidik yang berbahasa ibu bahasa Inggris.
Kelemahan ini dapat dijelaskaan sebagai berikut. Pertama, jumlah kosakata bahasa Inggris bisa jadi delapan kali lipat jumlah kosakata bahasa Indonesia. Artinya secara leksikal, konsep ihwal dunia para penutur bahasa Inggris jauh lebih banyak daripada konsep serupa yang dimiliki penutur bahasa Indonesia. Sebagai bahan perbandingan, penutur dewasa bahasa Inggris rata-rata memiliki perbendaharaan kata sekitar 50.000 kata, tetapi jumlah yang sebenarnya jauh lebih beragam. Pendidikan tinggi memberi perbendaharaan sekitar 80.000 kata (Calne 2004: 66).
Kedua, budaya literat menjadikan mereka, khususnya kaum terdidik, terbiasa menulis. Dalam pada itu, menulis telah terbukti sebagai kegiatan berbahasa yang paling mendukung terbentuknya keterampilan bernalar, yaitu kegiatan memecahkan masalah melalui proses linguistik dan kognitif yang kompleks seperti organizing, structuring, dan revising.
Sebuah penelitian dalam konteks SMA di AS juga berkesimpulan bahwa menulis mendukung nalar dan pembelajaran mata-mata pelajaran yang jauh lebih kompleks yang berguna bagi keberhasilan melakoni budaya berbasis teknologi dan informasi yang kompleks (Langer & Applebee, 1987). Jadi, pendidikan bahasa seharusnya didesain untuk menanamkan KBK, bukan sekadar keterampilan berbahasa.
Selama ini ada asumsi keliru bahwa mengajarkan keterampilan berbahasa secara otomatis berarti mengajarkan KBK. Kurikulum bahasa Indonesia selama ini tidak secara eksplisit menyatakan KBK sebagai tujuan pembelajaran bahasa. Ini berbeda misalnya dengan kurikulum Language Arts di sekolah-sekolah AS yang secara eksplisit mencantumkan penanaman KBK sebagai bagian dari tujuan kurikulernya.
Simpulan
Bagi masyarakat Indonesia yang berbudaya dengar-omong, komunikasi cenderung disinonimkan dengan komunikasi lisan yang tantangan nalarnya tidak secanggih komunikasi tulis. Secara kolektif, bangsa yang lemah budaya tulisnya cenderung lemah daya nalarnya. Secara individual, seorang yang produktif menulis akan lebih kritis daripada yang tidak produktif.
Jamu yang paling murah, tapi manjur untuk mengobati lemahnya KBK adalah pembenahahan pelajaran menulis dari SD sampai PT. Saat menulislah kita sadar terhadap apa yang kita ketahui dan ingin kita ungkapkan. Inilah yang disebut meaning making atau proses mengikat makna. Kesadaran seperti ini merupakan indikator KBK.
Dulu istilah kritis dalam pembelajaran bahasa lazim diartikan hanya sebagai pemahaman tingkat tinggi dalam pembelajaran membaca dan respons personal terhadap karya sastra. Dalam perkembangan terkini istilah ini dipakai dalam konsep critical pedagogy dan critical discourse analysis (CDA). Pendekatan kritis ini berimplikasi pada semua aspek pembelajaran seperti materi perkuliahan, proses belajar mengajar, serta hubungan dosen dan mahasiswa.
Selama ini ada kesan bahwa diskusi dalam perkuliahan linguistik lebih terkekang oleh isu-isu bahasa atau sastra yang terkelupas dari dunia sosial politik di luar ruang kuliah. Pendekatan kritis terhadap pendidikan bahasa menuntut komitmen terhadap transformasi sosial, keadilan, dan persamaan hak dan kewajiban sebagai bagian dari ciri kehidupan demokratis. Dosen dan pengajar pada umumnya mesti berperan sebagai agen perubahan sosial dan agen transformasi kultural dan intelektual.
Linguistik dengan segala cabangnya menawarkan pengetahuan dengan tingkat relevansinya yang beragam bagi pengembangan KBK. Kajian linguistik dengan basis data bahasa berguna untuk memahami aspek internal bahasa. Untuk meningkatkan kontribusinya bagi pengembangan nalar, mahasiswa harus dilatih menganalisis secara kritis konteks sosial bahasa dalam masyarakat.
Berwacana itu sesungguhnya berideologi. Wacana sebagai teks mengeksploitasi simbol-simbol linguistik. Wacana sebagai ideologi penuh dengan dominasi dan eksploitasi. Para mahasiswa mesti mampu menganalisis potensi-potensi dominasi dan eksploitasi. Singkatnya, kurikulum program linguistik seyogianya menawarkan perkuliahan Analisis Wacana Kritis atau Critical Discourse Analysis untuk membekali mereka keterampilan berpikir kritis.***


Penulis, Guru Besar, Pembatu Rektor IV & Dosen Pascasarjana (S.2 & S.3) Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (UPI), Bandung